Lucie O’Toole

Mrs. Hammatt, English III

Mr. Houston, US History

January 5, 1998

Thesis Paper

Dorothea Lynde Dix

Thesis sentence: I shall research the life of Dorothea Lynde Dix with emphasis on her contributions to the reform of prisons.

I. Introduction

II. Early life

A. Family

B. Education

C. Grandmother

III. Work Experience

A. Teaching

B. Established schools

IV. Moral issues

A. Prisons

B. Mentally ill

V. Political opposition

VI. Successes

A. Established hospitals

B. Overcoming opposition

VII. Impact on society

VIII. Conclusion

I come to present the strong claims of suffering humanity. I come to place before the Legislature of Massachusetts the condition of the miserable,

the desolate, the outcast. I come as the advocate of the helpless, forgotten, insane, and idiotic men and women; of beings sunk to a condition from which the most unconcerned would start the real horror; of beings wretched in our prisons, and more wretched in our almshouses...(Mem. to Mass. Leg. 1)

In the early nineteenth century, the mentally ill were forced into prisons, almshouses, or forced into inadequate family supervision. One of the few crusaders for the establishment of state supported mental asylums was Dorothea Dix.(University of Toledo Library 1)

When questioned about her upbringing, Dorothea Dix was quoted: "I never knew childhood." Thus, she tried to ensure that no one would learn of it. She burned letters, diaries, and all evidence of the unhappiness she endured.(Gollaher 8) Dorothea was born on April 4, 1802, in Hampden, Maine to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow Dix with the original name of Dorothy. She was the eldest of three children.(Wilson 241) Dorothea, named after her grandmother, was ten years the elder to her brother Charles Wesley. Shortly after Charles’ birth, her mother became pregnant again and gave birth to her second brother, Joseph, after their father.(Gollaher 23) Dorothea’s father, Joseph, was the scion of a wealthy and prominent Massachusetts family. Originally he had attended Harvard College, but left to marry a woman almost twenty years older than himself. Mary Bigelow was poor and uneducated. With their marriage beings socially unacceptable, they decided to reside in a desolate area of woodsy Maine. There, Joseph began working as an administrator of real estate holdings belonging to his deceased father. They began their family and Dorothea’s father decided to become an itinerant Methodist minister. The family survived by donations through the church, and by the sales of pamphlets containing his sermons.(Wilson 241) Her father’s ministry was a strain on the family. As a result, the family had to take the vow of poverty and they were forced to relocate in poor conditions. Even as a young child, Dorothea saw that her family was slipping further and further into social decline and inferiority(Gollaher 18-19). At a young age, Dix did not receive a formal education. The majority of her free time in her unhappy home was spent putting together religious pamphlets for her father. Time to her self was limited. Even at her young age Dorothea was forced to take on the responsibility of her two younger brothers.(Wilson 242) This outrageous responsibility fell upon her as her mother became "semi-invalid" due to her last delivery. The family was continued to move around and due to her fathers obligations, they returned to Worcester. Their many relatives in the area could help Dorothea raise her brothers, but Dorothea interpreted the move as a terrible defeat and knew her family was slipping once again. All the pain and discomfort may have been easier on her if she had good loving parents. However, her parents were absorbed in their own problems and were incapable of giving her the affection she craved.(Gollaher 19) Dorothea despised her parents and their twisted lifestyle. Her father seemed to fall under religious spells, and seemed rather eery. Dorothea could not relate to either parents and decided she could not endure her current lifestyle. She decided to sneak away from home to Boston to seek refuge with her widowed grandmother at the Dix Mansion.(Gollaher 24)

Dorothy Dix, referred to as Madame Dix, had almost completely disowned Joseph and Mary Dix; they had minimal contact. Because of this, she felt sympathy for her granddaughter and thought of her as a victim. Although Dorothea was sixty-eight, she felt it was up to her to save Dorothea from her terrible childhood. Dorothea’s parent’s reactions are not known pertaining to her running away. However since the household was struggling, it was probably a relief. At the time of all this, the Dix family had not been very fortunate. A series of deaths within the family had occurred, including her husbands. Dorothy set out to assure herself that Dorothea would not follow in her father’s footsteps.(Gollaher 25) While living with her grandmother, she was enrolled in one of the best private schools for girls in Boston. Her grandmother’s incentive was to prepare her for a teaching career. Dix was also educating herself by reading out of her grandfathers library.(Wilson 242) With all the pressures from her grandmother, including discipline, restraint, and self control, Dorothea realized she had only exchanged an unhappy life with her family to an unhappy life with her grandmother. Although receiving an excellent education in Boston, she began rebelling against her grandmother’s strict Puritan code.(Wilson 242) After about two years with her grandmother, Dorothea’s stubbornness caused their relationship to slowly deteriorate. She was sent back to live in Worcester with her great aunt, Sarah Duncan, who happened to be taking care of Dorothea’s younger brothers. This was a happy and stable home. Sarah was able to put Dorothea’s past behind her, and began on her quest to teach Dorothea how to be a proper young lady. She expected a lot from Dorothea, and Dorothea was willing to please. Dorothea had trouble fitting in with the posh society, and thought that most girls were silly and held a lack of purpose.

To preoccupy herself, she created a job. Dorothea assembled a small school, with a few benches, chairs, and cots in a room in a building that one of her uncles owned. She was in charge of small children. No one ever asked for qualifications. Being only fourteen at the time, she really served as a babysitter as much as a teacher. Opening the school gave Dorothea a longed for independence. It also gave her a constructive role in Worcester. At a young age she had already established a name for herself. She was able to assume a role of authority, and felt in control of her life for once. It was a way of "reinventing herself." Dorothea was strict with her pupils. Discipline was a major factor in her school. About 1820, Dorothea closed her school, took her brothers and moved back to Boston. With her grandmother aging, Dorothy needed help and Dorothea was capable of managing a household.(Gollaher 27-28)

After a few years in Boston, Dorothea became very religious. She seemed to find herself. Living with her grandmother, she wanted to open another school. In trying to persuade her grandmother to let her set up a charity school within the Dix Mansion, she said: "God has placed us here to serve himself in serving his children of the earth." She declared herself as ready to become "an apostle in communicating the religion of Christ to those who sit in darkness." Madame Dix was disgusted that she wanted to open her beautiful home up to "urchins off the street." Her grandmother soon gave in and allowed her to furnish a room in the barn and turn it into a charity school. Dorothea began taking students in 1821.(Gollaher 40) In her schools, she established her own curriculum stressing natural sciences, the responsibility of ethical living, and strong discipline.(Van Doven 280) She then opened a second school within the Dix Mansion which welcomed a higher class of students who were capable of paying more. She focused all her energy on her schools and thought of them as above and beyond anything else. Her friends thought it was compulsive. She became very intense and spent seven to eight hours daily with her students. Both of the schools were named the Dix Mansion School’s due to where they were situated. When finished teaching school she had her household chores, tending to her younger brothers, and her grandmother also pressured her to master needlework. At night she read and tried to educate herself. Dorothea had very little time for herself, just to relax, or even to spend time for her few friends.(Gollaher 40) All of these pressures took their toll on Dorothea. Her work and all the responsibility of the household wore her down. Dorothea was too busy doing what she loved to acknowledge the strain she was forcing her body to endure. It took a toll on her health and she developed incipient tuberculosis.

Consequently, in 1827, a doctor warned Dorothea that her life was in danger; Dorothea was forced to give up her schools due to her health. It was in her best interest to move to Rhode Island with Dr. Channing and his family, a close friend of the family and a prominent doctor. While residing there she published a few books including, "American Moral Tales for Young Persons." After time in Rhode Island, the family, along with Dorothea relocated to St. Croix. Her health was almost completely restored.(Wilson 242) Although Dorothea was in poor health while staying with Dr. Channing, she could not resist teaching. She aided as a tutor for Dr. Channing’s children.(Wilson 67) With her health slowly improving Dorothea decided it was time for her to return home to Boston. She was in stable health but felt obligated to open another school. Students from all over New England attended. She emphasized natural history, general science, and character building. The effort and immense dedication unfortunately once again endangered her health.

In the spring of 1986, she suffered a total physical and mental breakdown. Her grandmother sent her to England for recuperation where she stayed with William Rathbone, a Unitarian philanthropist, in Liverpool.(Wilson 242) The indications of Dorothea’s illness was consistent with what English doctors called, "moral insanity." She experienced wild mood swings, and was very depressed. Although strong willed Dorothea got the rest her body needed, recuperated, and was eager to return back to the states.(Gollaher 101-105)

In 1837, Dorothea arrived in Boston and heard of her grandmother’s death. The inheritance would allow an adequate income that would ensure her independence. Dorothea moved in with her Sister-in-law, Sarah Gibbs.(Gollaher 116)

In March of 1841 she accepted the task of teaching at a Sunday School held in the East Cambridge Prison. Accepting this position was the turning point in Dorothea Dix’s life. After teaching her first class, she was curious of the rest of the facility. She asked a warden for permission to walk around and she discovered the inmates, both men and women, lived in unheated, dirty rooms. The following day, Dorothea returned with blankets, food, and warm clothing.(Wilson 242) Dorothea asked the warden to provide heat for the inmates and he replied: "The insane need no heat." Almost implying they were insensitive to temperature, and not human.(Cable 240) Dorothea was disgusted that the insane peoples were thrown in with hardcore criminals. Not segregated by their conditions, age, or sex.(Van Doven 240) After just a short time at the prison she decided it was her duty to become the advocate of the mentally ill.

For more than a year, she traveled around the Bay State inspecting the facilities in which they were housed.(Grob 46) Witnessing the conditions, Dorothea made her first reforming move. She applied to the East Cambridge Court requesting the installment of stoves in women's rooms, and it was granted. The local newspaper picked up the details of the case and published them which was considered a huge step at the time. The result was the renovation of women's quarters. Dorothea’s next step was to visit the McLean Hospital in Boston. The hospital was a private institution for the insane. Upon arrival she went straight to Luther Bell, the director. Luther Bell was one of the leading specialists of mental disorders. His methods focused on humane treatment and therapeutic measures, rather than custodial care. Bell’s facility was an exception to other disgusting facilities. Seeing Bell’s facility gave Dorothea some hope, and she convinced herself hospital reform was not impossible.(Wilson 243)

Even at the very beginning of this all Dorothea Dix realized her calling. She went into an intensive study of current practice in the treatment of mental illness. Dorothea Dix found a new area to dedicate all her time and energy to. She also came across her first supporter for her lengthy voyage. Samuel Gridley Howe was an educator and philanthropist who visited local prisons, supported her findings, and took up her cause.(Wilson 242)

In 1843, she sent her first petition to the Legislature of Massachusetts.(Grob 46) She began her memorial, "Gentlemen, I respectfully ask to present this memorial, believing that the cause, which actuates to and sanctions so unusual a movement, presents no equivocal claim to public consideration and sympathy..." She also stated within her memorial: If my pictures are displeasing, course, and severe, my subjects, it must be recollected, offer no tranquil, refined, or composing figures. The condition of human beings, reduced to the extremist states of degradation and misery cannot be exhibited in softened language, or adorn a polished page.

Dorothea proceeded "Gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of the insane persons confined within this Commonwealth, in cages, closets, cellars, stalls, pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience..."

Dorothea concluded her powerful memorial: "Gentlemen, I commit to you this sacred cause. Your action upon this subject will affect the present and future condition of hundreds of thousands. In this legislation, as in all things, may you exercise that wisdom which is the breath of the power of God."(Mem. to Mass. Leg.)

Dix was successful, but was not satisfied with one reform.

As a result, Dorothea traveled to each visiting asylums, and presenting reports to the legislatures in each of the individual states. The reports were usually in the form of a petition or memorial.(Grob 47) She ventured to New York and Rhode Island. In New Jersey she convinced the legislature to create a model mental hospital in New Jersey where she served as an advisor. She then went on to establish a similar hospital in Pennsylvania. Dorothea continued her travels in the United States through the south. She followed the same pattern in each state conducting in depth investigations.(Wilson 243) Throughout the memorials, she provided evidence of certain hospitals she visited. For example, in Burlington, a female patient was only allowed to rise from bed every other day. The nurse said that the mentally ill woman was simply too much trouble. In a hospital located in Granville she witnessed a man so tightly confined that he was losing his limbs from lack of exercise. One subject in Medford had been chained in a closed cell for seventeen years. In a Lincoln hospital there was a mentally women in a cage.(Mem. to Mass. Legislature 5)

Witnessing this, Dorothea insisted that the state have a moral, humanitarian, medical, and legal obligation toward the mentally ill providing the benefit of sanitary asylum care.(Grob 47) The main objective of imprisonment should be rehabilitation, combined with discipline, humane treatment, and religious, moral, and vocational instruction. She believed that the patients should be kept in different houses pertaining to their specific illness. Not just thrown together and treated the same, but they deserved and needed individual attention.(Wilson 243) Dorothea’s influence was spreading rapidly. If positions at asylums became vacant, she often made the decision of who would fill the position. Those people interested in seeking medical careers often consulted her with their plans. Her opinion became very important to many.(Grob 47)

By 1850, she had traveled more than sixty thousand miles and visited thousands of institutions. Already Dorothea had contributed to the creation of thirteen new facilities, including the hospital for Insane Soldiers and Sailors. Although she always managed to get her point across, Dorothea rarely spoke in public.

Being so strong willed, other reformers looked for her assistance.(Wilson 243) She was responsible for re-founding or enlarging hospitals in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Toronto. Also hospitals were established in Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, Montana, Missouri, Louisiana, Alabama, Maryland, and South and North Carolina. Before Dorothea Dix entered these states, they had no prior treatment for the mentally ill.

In 1854, she left to bring her crusade to Europe. Spending three years there, she founded hospitals on the Isle of Jersey, and in Rome. Pope Pius IX granted her a private audience in which she persuaded him to review the mental institutions in Rome. While traveling in Scotland she opened Queen Victoria’s eyes to the problems within her country. The Queen formed an organization to conduct investigations throughout Scotland.(Who’s Who 151)

While Dorothea was traveling around doing all her research, people back in the states began talking. Superintendents of asylums became rather disgruntled with all the attention Dix had brought to their unsanitary facilities. For instance, Amarion Brigham said: "Dix was often mistaken, and this has thrown a doubt over all her statements."(Grob 47) Although public statements were made by many, Dorothea’s personality and determination made it difficult for legislators to ignore her. Although Dorothea was achieving great things, it was hard to work wonders without a lot of money. The only effort to alter the manner in which states financed asylums was by Dorothea. In 1848, she tried to persuade Congress to authorize the distribution of five million acres of land to the states. The proceeds of this project would go to a fund to care for the mentally ill. After years of persistence, Congress passed a bill in 1854 granting ten million acres to the project. After much excitement and planning, President Franklin Pierce vetoed the bill. President Pierce stated:

... the fountains of charity will be dried up at home, and the several states, instead of bestowing their own means on the social wants of their own people, may themselves through the strong temptation, which appeals to states as to individuals, become nimble supplicants for the bounty of the federal government, reversing their true relation to this Union.

The veto that President Franklin Pierce installed ensured that the federal government would not have anything to do with the mental health policy for over a decade. By the mid-nineteenth century, it became aware that the achievements of the state institutions had not lived up to their expectations and promises. The number of mentally ill people continued to increase. Cost of treatment continued to rise with obviously no help from the government.(Grob 47)

In the mid-nineteenth century, females in America had few career choices available to them. They had no political power, they couldn’t vote, and were legally subordinate to their male counterparts. The women of Dix’s time destinies were to become a wife or a mother. Despite the powerful prejudice against women who were outspoken in public, Dorothea Dix succeeded in securing modern facilities with trained attendants.(Dix Succors 10

During the Civil War, Dorothea took some time off from her regular duty to the mentally ill. She went to establish nursing positions for women encouraging them to get into the spotlight. Dorothea offered her services to the war department to organize nursing corps for female volunteers. In June of 1861, she was commissioned Supervisor of Army Nurses. The title she received was the first title of that manor. Dorothea had very little experience in administration. The task was very considerable for a woman of sixty and in poor health. Nevertheless, Dorothea got involved. The hospitals were poorly staffed and poorly equipped. Dix sent for medical equipment, and sent out circulars for staff recruitment all over the country. She established a list of qualifications necessary for employment: a minimum age of thirty, plain features, and simple dress, she was a true perfectionist. Dorothea stated:

However, her picky ways caused some controversy. In 1863 the assistant Surgeon General was forced to limit her authority due to complaints about her methods.

In September of 1866 Dorothea left the army and returned to her work with the mentally ill. She also went on to form fund-raising projects for the hospitals that had already been established. In 1881, due to her health, Dorothea retired to Trenton State Hospital in New Jersey. Trenton State Hospital was one of the first institutions she had worked to found. Dorothea Dix died at the age of eighty-five of arteriosclerosis, and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.(Wilson 243)

Dorothea Dix not only influenced the political system, she "invaded" it in every state she visited. She pressured legislatures for appropriate resources for the building of institutions. In states where opposition formed, Dix moved headstrong in an area where women were forbidden, sized up her opponents, converted wealthy and influential supporters, and invented lobbying strategies to secure the passage of legislation.(BBR 1) Dix’s name will always be identified with reform in mental health care. She awoke the country of the social problem of mental illness and the need for redemial action. Dorothea Dix’s kindness and patience eased the lives of thousands of sufferers rather than the cruelty they had been subjected to before.(Wilson 243)

Bibliography

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�
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