Levels of Structural Organization

         Function correlates with structure in the tissues of animals
         The organ systems of an animal are interdependent

    Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals

         Animals are heterotrophs that harvest chemical energy from the food they
         ingest
         Metabolic rate provides clues to an animal's bioenergetic "strategy"
         Metabolic rate per gram is inversely related to body size among similar
         animals

    Body Plans and the External Environment

         Physical support on land depends on adaptations of body proportions and
         posture
         Body size and shape affect interactions with the environment

    Regulating the Internal Environment

         Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment
         Homeostasis depends on feedback circuits

Chapter  40
tissue - an integrated group of cells with a common structure and function.
epithelial tissue (EP-eh-THEEL-ee-ul)  - Sheets of tightly packed cells that line organs and body cavities.
basement membrane - The floor of an epithelial membrane on which the basal cells rest.
simple epithelium - single layer of cells
stratified epithelium - multiple tiers of cells
cuboidal - square (like dice)
columnar - retangular (like bricks on end)
squamous - flat (floor tiles)
mucous membrane - epithelia that absorp or secrete chemical solutions.  (respiratory and digestive tracts)
collagenous fibers - made of collagen (probably the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom)
elastic fibers - long threads made of a protein called elastin.
reticular fibers - thin and branched, joins connective tissue (collagenous fibers) to adjacent tissues.
loose connective tissue - binds epithelia to underlying tissue and functions as packing material, holding organs in place.
fibroblasts (FY-broh-blast) - a type of cell in loose connective tissue that secretes the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers.
macrophages (MAK-roh-fage) - an amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.
adipose tissue - specialized form of loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells
fibrous connective tissue - is dense, due to its large concentration of collageous fibers.  Fibers are organized into parallel bundles.
tendons - a type of fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.
ligament - a type of fibrous connective tissue that joins bones together at joints.
cartilage (KAR-til-ij) A type of flexible connective tissue with an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix.
chondrocytes - cartilage cells that secret collagen and the rubbery matrix (chondroitin sulfate).
bone - a mineralized connective tissue.
osteoblasts - bone-forming cells that deposit a matrix of collagen and release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions which harden within the matrix.
Haversian systems (ha-VER-shun) One of many structural units of vertebrate bone, consisting of concentric layers of mineralized bone matrix surrounding lacunae, which contain osteocytes, and a central canal, which contains blood vessels and nerves.
blood -a type of connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which blood cells are suspended.
nervous tissue - senses stimuli and trasmits signals from one part of the animal to another.
neuron (NOOR-on) - a nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.
muscle tissue - is composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses.
skeletal muscle - striated muscle generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
striated muscle - arrangement of overlappiong filaments gives the cells a striped appearance under the microscope. (skeletal and cardiac)
cardiac muscle (KAR-dee-ak) A type of muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart; its cells are joined by intercalated discs that relay each heartbeat.
smooth muscle a type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cell.
organs -a specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.
mesenteries (MEZ-en-ter-ee) a membrane that suspends many of the organs of vertebrates inside fluid-filled body cavities.
thoracic cavity - upper portion of the ventral body cavity that houses the lungs and heart.
abdominal cavity - lower portion of the ventral body cavity that houses the digestive organs, kidneys, and reproductive organs.
organ system - group of organs that function together to carry out a major body function. (circulatory system, respiratory system)
metabolic rate - total amount of energy an animal uses in a given amount of time.
calories (cal) - the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1° C; the amount of heat energy that 1 g of water releases when it cools by 1° C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie.
kilocalories (kcal)
basal metaboloic rate (BMR) - the minimal number of kilocalories a resting animal requires to fuel itself for a given time.
standard metabolic rate (SMR) - metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm.
interstitial fluid - the internal environment of vertebrates, consisting of the fluid filling the spaces between cells.
homeostasis (HOME-ee-oh-STAY-sis) - the steady-state physiological condition of the body.
negative feedback - a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.
positive feedback - a physiological control mechanism in which a change in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify the change.
 
 

    Nutritional Requirements

         Animals are heterotrophs that require food for fuel, carbon skeletons, and
         essential nutrients: an overview
         Homeostatic mechanisms manage an animal's fuel
         An animal's diet must supply essential nutrients and carbon skeletons for
         biosynthesis

    Food Types and Feeding Mechanisms

         Most animals are opportunistic feeders Diverse feeding adaptations have
         evolved among animals

    Overview of Food Processing

         The four main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion,
         absorption, and elimination
         Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

    The Mammalian Digestive System

         The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate food processing
         The stomach stores food and performs preliminary digestion
         The small intestine is the major organ of digestion and absorption
         Hormones help regulate digestion
         Reclaiming water is a major function of the large intestine

    Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems

         Structural adaptations of the digestive system are often associated with diet
         Symbiotic microorganisms help nourish many vertebrates

Chapter  41
undernourished - having a diet deficient in calories.
essential nutrients - materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animal's cells cannot make them from any raw materials.
malnourished - having a diet that is missing one or more essential nutrients.
essential amino acids - amino acids that must be obtained in prefabricated form (8 of them for humans, histidine is a ninth for infants)
essential fatty acids - the fatty acids that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must obtain from food (linoleic acid)
vitamins  - an organic molecule required in the diet in very small amounts; vitamins serve primarily as coenzymes or parts of coenzymes.
minerals - in nutrition, one of many chemical elements, other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, that an organism requires for proper  body functioning.
herbivores - a heterotrophic animal that eats plants.
carnivores - an animal, such as a shark, hawk, or spider, that eats other animals. carpel (KAR-pel) The female reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.
omnivores - a heterotrophic animal that consumes both meat and plant material.
suspension-feeders -  aquatic animals, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water.
substrate-feeders - live in or on their food source, eating their way through the food. (leaf miner)
deposit-feeders - a  heterotroph, such as an earthworm, that eats its way through detritus, salvaging bits and pieces of decaying organic matter.
fluid-feeders An animal that lives by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from another living organism.
bulk-feeders - animals that eat relatively large pieces of food. (most animals)
ingestion - a heterotrophic mode of nutrition in which other organisms or detritus are eaten whole or in pieces.
digestion - the process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.
enzymatic hydrolysis - breaking bonds with the enzymatic addition of water. (chemical digestion)
absorption - when the animal's cell absorb (take up) small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars from the digestive compartment
elimination - when undigested material passes out of the digestive compartment.
intracellular digestion - digestion occuring inside cells when food vacuole fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes.
extracellular digestion - breakdown of food outside cells.  Occurs with compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals body.
gastrovascular cavities - the central digestive compartment, with a single opening functioning as both mouth and anus. (cnidarian, flatworms)
complete digestive tract (alimentary canals) - digestive tube extending between two openings, a mouth and an anus.
anus - part of the alimentary canal through which undigested wastes are eliminated.
peristalsis (PAIR-is-TAL-sis) rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscle that push food along the digestive tract.
sphincters (SFINK-ter) a ringlike valve, consisting of modified muscles in a muscular tube, such as a digestive tract; closes off the tube like a drawstring.
accessory glands of the mammalians digestive system - salivary glands, the pancreas, the liver, and its storage organ, the gallbladder.
salivary amylase - a digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen.
bolus - ball of food produced in the mouth.
pharynx (FAH-rinks) - an area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross; in flatworms, the muscular tube that protrudes from the ventral side of the worm and ends in the mouth.
epiglottis - a cartilaginous flap that blocks the top of the windpipe, the glottis, during swallowing, which prevents the entry of food or fluid into the respiratory system.
esophagus (eh-SOF-eh-gus)  -a channel that conducts food, by peristalsis, from the pharynx to the stomach.
stomach - expandable organ (2 liters) that stores food and perform preliminary digestion.
gastric juice - digestive fluid secreted by the cells in the stomach wall.  Has a pH of about 2.
pepsin - enzyme in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins.  pepsinogen - inactive form of pepsin.
pyloric sphincter - a circular muscle that regulates the passage of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine.
small intestine - longest section of the alimentary canal where most digestion and all absorption occurs.
duodenum (doo-oh-DEE-num) The first section of the small intestine, where acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall.
bile - mixture of bile salts that emulsify fats, and pigments that are the by-products of red-blood cell destruction in the liver.
trypsin - pancreatic enzyme that breaks large polypeptides into shorter chains.  (trypsinogen is inactive form)
chymotrypsin - same as trypsin.  (chymotrypsinogen is inactive form)
carboxypeptidase - pancreatic enzyme that breaks amino acids off polypeptides at the free carboxyl group end. (procarboxypeptidase)
aminopeptidase - intestinal lining enzyme that works in the opposite direction of carboxypeptidase. (at the free amino group end)
dipeptidases - intestinal lining enzyme that splits small peptides.
enteropeptidase - intestinal lining enzyme that triggers the acitivation of the protein-digesting pancreatic enzymes.
nucleases - team of enzymes that hydrolyze DNA and RNA in food.
emulsification - the breaking up of large droplets of fat into smaller droplets of fat by bile salts that coat the droplets preventing them from coalesing.
lipase - pancreatic enzyme that hydrolyzes the fat molecules.
jejunum - second part of the small intestine which functions mainly in the absorptino of nutrients and water.
ileum - third part of the small intestine which functions mainly in the absorptino of nutrients and water.
villi - finger-like projection  located on large circular folds of the intestinal epithelium.
microvillus (plural, microvilli) - one of many fine, fingerlike projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area.
lacteal (lak-TEEL) a tiny lymph vessel extending into the core of an intestinal villus and serving as the destination for absorbed chylomicrons.
chylomicrons - small globules formed from fats, cholesterol and proteins which enter the lacteal.
hepatic portal vessel - a large circulatory channel that conveys nutrient-laden blood from the small intestine to the liver, which regulates the blood's nutrient content.
gastrin - a digestive hormone, secreted by the stomach, that stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.
enterogastrones - hormones secreted by the wall of the duodenum.
secretin - enterogastron that signals the pancreas to release bicarbonate, which neutralizes that acidity of chyme.
cholecystoknin (CCK) - a enterogastron which cause contraction of the gall bladder releasing bile into the duodenum, and triggers that release of pancreatic enzymes.
large intesine (colon) - last part of the alimentary canal that functions in water absorption.
cecum - in humans a relatively (compared to many other mammals) small pouch of the large intestine.
appendix - finger-like extension of the cecum that contains lymphoid tissue contributing to body defense minimally.
rectum - terminal portion of the colon where feces are stored until they can be eliminated.

    Circulation in Animals

         Transport systems functionally connect the organs of exchange with the
         body cells: an overview
         Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity or a circulatory system for
         internal transport
         Vertebrate phylogeny is reflected in adaptations of the cardiovascular
         system
         Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle
         of the heart
         Structural differences of arteries, veins, and capillaries correlate with their
         different functions
         Physical laws governing the movement of fluids through pipes affect blood
         flow and blood pressure
         Transfer of substances between the blood and the interstitial fluid occurs
         across the thin walls of capillaries
         The lymphatic system returns fluid to the blood and aids in body defense
         Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma
         Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States
         and most other developed nations

    Gas Exchange in Animals

         Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of
         carbon dioxide: an overview
         Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic animals
         Tracheal systems and lungs are respiratory adaptations of terrestrial
         animals
         Control centers in the brain regulate the rate and depth of breathing
         Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other organs
         Respiratory pigments transport gases and help buffer the blood
         Deep-diving mammals stockpile oxygen and consume it slowly
 
 

Chapter  42
open circulatory system  - an arrangement of internal transport in which blood bathes the organs directly and there is no distinction
between blood and interstitial fluid.
hemolymph - general body fluid in invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues.
sinuses - interconnected system of spaces surrounding the organs into which hemolymph is pumped by one or more hearts.
closed circulatory system - a type of internal transport in which blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from interstitial fluid.
cardiovascular system (KAR-dee-oh-VAS-kyuh-ler) - a closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries, capilleries, and
veins.
atrium (AY-tree-um) (plural, atria) - a chamber that receives blood returning to the vertebrate heart.
ventricles - chamber that pumps blood out of the heart.
arteries - a vessel that carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
arterioles - small vessels that brach off of arteries and carry blood to the capillaries.
capillaries (KAP-ill-air-ee) A microscopic blood vessel that penetrates the tissues and consists of a single layer of endothelial cells that allows exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid.
capillary beds - network of cappillaries that infiltrate tissues.
venules - vessles into which capillaries merge.  Venules merge into veins.
veins - a vessel that returns blood to the heart.
pulmocutaneous circuit - part of the frog circulatory system that leads to the gas exchange tissues (lungs and skin)and returns oxygen-rich blood to the heart.
systemic circuit - part of the circulatory system that carries oxygen-rich blood to the body organs and returns oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium via the veins.
double circulation - a circulation scheme with separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, which ensures vigorous blood flow to all organs.
pulmonary circuit - part of the circulatory system that conveys blood from the heart to the gas-exchange tissues in the lungs and back to the heart.
atrioventricular valve (AV) A valve in the heart between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a backflow of blood when the ventricles contract.
semilunar valves - a valve located at the two exits of the heart, where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle.
pulse - rhythmic stretching of the arteries caused by tyhe pressure of blood driven by the powerful contractions of the ventricles.
heart rate - the number of times the heart beats each minute.
cardiac cycle - one complete sequence of the heart pumping and filling.
systole (SIS-toh-lee) - the stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and the chambers pump blood.
diastole (dy-ASS-toh-lee) - the stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle is relaxed, allowing the chambers to fill with blood.
cardiac output - the volume of blood pumped per minute by the left ventricle of the heart.
stroke volume - the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle each time it contracts.
sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) - the pacemaker of the heart, located in the wall of the right atrium. At the base of the wall separating the two atria is another patch of nodal tissue called the atrioventricular node (AV).
atrioventricular (AV) node  - a valve in the heart between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a backflow of blood when the ventricles contract.
electrocardiogram (ECG/ EKG) - a graph of the eletrical cuurents that travel through the heart muscle during a cardiac cycle.
endothelium (EN-doh-THEEL-ee-um) - the innermost, simple squamous layer of cells lining the blood vessels; the only constituent structure of capillaries.
blood pressure - the hydrostatic force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel.
peripheral resistance - slowing of blood flow as it enters the arterioles resulting in pressure in the arteries during diastole.
lymphatic system (lim-FAT-ik) - a system of vessels and lymph nodes, separate from the circulatory system, that returns fluid and protein to the blood.
lymph (limf) - the colorless fluid, derived from interstitial fluid, in the lymphatic system of vertebrate animals.
lymph nodes - enlargements of the lymph vessels that filter that lymph and contain many white blood cells.
plasma (PLAZ-muh) - the liquid matrix of blood in which the cells are suspended.
red blood cell (erythrocytes) (er-RITH-roh-site) - a red blood cell; contains hemoglobin, which functions in transporting oxygen in the circulatory system.
hemoglobin (HEE-moh-gloh-bin) - an iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen.
white blood cells (leukocytes) (LOO-koh-site) - a white blood cell; typically functions in immunity, such as phagocytosis or antibody production.
platelet - small enucleated blood cell important in blood clotting; derived from large cells in the bone marrow.
pluripotent stem cell - a cell within bone marrow that is a progenitor for any kind of blood cell.
fibrinogen - inactive form of fibrin.
fibrin (FY-brin) - the activated form of the blood-clotting protein fibrinogen, which aggregates into threads that form the fabric of the clot.
hemophilia - an genetic disease characterized by excessive bleeding from even minor cuts and bruises.
thrombus - clot that forms within a blood vessel blocking the flow of blood.
cardio-vascular diseases - diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
heart attack - is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more cotronary arteries, the blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart.
stroke - is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from blockage of arteries in the head.
atherosclerosis - a chronic cardio-vascular disease in which growths called plaques (fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle cells infiltrated with lipids) develop on the inner wall of the arteries.
arteriosclerosis  - hardening of the arteries when the plaques from atherosclerosis become hardened by calcium deposits.
hypertension  (high blood pressure) - promotes atherosclerosis and the risk of heart attack and stroke.
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) - form of cholesterol that tends increase lipid deposition in arterial plaques.
high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) - form of cholesterol that may reduce lipid deposition in arterial plaques.  Exercise increases HDLs.
gas exchange - the uptake of oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment.
respiratory medium - the source of oxygen, is air in terrestrial animals and water for aquatic animals.
respiratory surface - part of the animals where oxygen from the environment diffuses into living cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
gills - a localized extension of the body surface of many aquatic animals, specialized for gas exchange.
ventilation - any method of increasing contact between the respiratory medium and the respiratory surface.
countercurrent exchange - the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss.
tracheal system - a gas exchange system of branched, chitin-lined tubes that infiltrate the body and carry oxygen directly to cells in insects.
lungs - the invaginated respiratory surfaces of terrestrial vertebrates, land snails, and spiders that connect to the atmosphere by narrow tubes.
larynx - upper part of the respiratory tract that contains the vocal cords and moves upward during swallowing which tips the epiglottis over the glottis.
trachea (TRAY-kee-uh) The windpipe; that portion of the respiratory tube that has C-shaped cartilagenous rings and passes from the larynx to two bronchi.
bronchi - the two main branches off of the trachea, one to each lung.
bronchioles - smaller air passageways that branch off of eah bronchus.
alveolus (al-VEE-oh-lus) (plural, alveoli) - one of the deadend, multilobed air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs. breathing - alternate inhalation and exhalation of air.
positive pressure breathing - pushing of air down to the lungs  in frogs.
negative pressure breathing - pulling air down into the lungs in mammals. (caused by the contracting diaphragm pushing downward)
diaphragm - a sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals; active in ventilating the lungs.
tidal volume - the volume of air an animal inhales and exhales with each normal breath.
vital capacity - the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during forced breathing.
residual volume - amount of air left in the lungs after forcefully blowing out as much air as possible.
parabronchi -
*breathing control centers
partial pressure The concentration of gases; a fraction of total pressure.
*respiratory pigments
*hemocyanin
*dissociation curve
myoglobin (MY-uh-glow-bin) An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.
 
 

    Nonspecific Defenses Against Infection

         The skin and mucous membranes provide first-line barriers to infection
         Phagocytic cells, inflammation, and antimicrobial proteins function early in
         infection

    How Specific Immunity Arises

         Lymphocytes provide the specificity and diversity of the immune system
         Antigens interact with specific lymphocytes, inducing immune responses
         and immunological memory
         Lymphocyte development gives rise to an immune system that
         distinguishes self from nonself

    Immune Responses

         Helper T lymphocytes function in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity:
         an overview
         In the cell-mediated response, cytotoxic T cells defend against intracellular
         pathogens: a closer look
         In the humoral response, B cells produce antibodies against extracellular
         pathogens: a closer look
         Invertebrates have a rudimentary immune system

    Immunity in Health and Disease

         Immunity can be achieved naturally or artificially
         The immune system's capacity to distinguish self from nonself limits blood
         transfusion and tissue transplantation
         Abnormal immune function can lead to disease
         AIDS is an Immunodeficiency disease caused by a virus
 

Chapter  43
lysozyme (LY-so-zime) An enzyme in perspiration, tears, and saliva that attacks bacterial cell walls.
phagocytosis (FAY-goh-sy-TOH-sis) A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances.
*neutrophils
*monocytes
macrophages (MAK-roh-fage) An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.
*eosinophils
natural killer (NK) cells A nonspecific defensive cell that attacks tumor cells and destroys infected body cells, especially those harboring viruses.
inflammatory response A line of defense triggered by penetration of the skin or mucous membranes, in which small blood vessels in the vicinity of an injury dilate and become leakier, enhancing the infiltration of leukocytes; may also be widespread in the body.
histamine (HISS-tuh-meen) A substance released by injured cells that causes blood vessels to dilate during an inflammatory response.
*basophils
*mast cells
prostaglandins (PG) (PROS-tuh-GLAN-din) One of a group of modified fatty acids secreted by virtually all tissues and performing a wide variety of functions as messengers.
*chemokines
*pyrogens
complement system A group of at least 20 blood proteins that cooperate with other defense mechanisms; may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse pathogens; activated by the onset of the immune response or by surface antigens on microorganisms or other foreign cells.
interferons  (IN-tur-FEER-on) A chemical messenger of the immune system, produced by virus-infected cells and capable of helping other cells resist the virus.
B lymphocytes A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies, which mediate humoral immunity.
T lymphocytes (TC) A type of lymphocyte that kills infected cells and cancer cells.
antigens (AN-teh-jen) A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and that elicits an immune response.
antibodies An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.
*antigen receptors
*T cell receptors
effector cells A muscle cell or gland cell that performs the body's responses to stimuli; responds to signals from then brain or other processing center of the nervous system.
memory cells A clone of long-lived lymphocytes, formed during the primary immune response, that remains in a lymph node until activated by exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory cells mount the secondary immune response.
clonal selection (KLOH-nul) The mechanism that determines specificity and accounts for antigen memory in the immune system; occurs because an antigen introduced into the body selectively activates only a tiny fraction of inactive lymphocytes, which proliferate to form a clone of effector cells specific for the stimulating antigen.
primary immune response The initial immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag of several days.
plasma cells A derivative of B cells that secretes antibodies.
secondary immune response The immune response elicited when an animal encounters the same antigen at some later time. The secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer duration than the primary immune response.
*programmed cell death
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) A large set of cell surface antigens encoded by a family of genes. Foreign MHC markers trigger T-cell responses that may lead to the rejection of transplanted tissues and organs.
*Class I MHC
*Class II MHC
*antigen presentation
cytotoxic T cells (TC) A type of lymphocyte that kills infected cells and cancer cells.
Helper T cells A type of T cell that is required by some B cells to help them make antibodies or that helps other T cells respond to antigens or secrete lymphokines or interleukins.
humoral immunity (HYOO-mur-al) The type of immunity that fights bacteria and viruses in body fluids with antibodies that circulate in blood plasma and lymph, fluids formerly called humors.
cell-mediated immunity The type of immunity that functions in defense against fungi, protists, bacteria, and viruses inside host cells and against tissue transplants, with highly specialized cells that circulate in the blood and lymphoid tissue.
*antigen presenting cells (APCs)
*CD4
cytokines In the vertebrate immune system, protein factors secreted by macrophages and helper T cells as regulators of neighboring cells.
interleukin-1 (IL-1) (IN-tur-loo-kin) A chemical regulator (cytokin) secreted by macrophages that have ingested a pathogen or foreign molecule and have bound with a helper T cell; stimulates T cells to grow and divide and elevates body temperature. Interleukin-2, secreted by activated T cells, stimulates helper T cells to proliferate more rapidly.
suppressor T cell (TS) A type of T cell that causes B cells as well as other cells to ignore antigens.
*CD8
*target cell
*perforin
*tumor antigen
*T-dependent antigens
*T-independent antigens
epitope A localized region on the surface of an antigen that is chemically recognized by antibodies; also called antigenic determinant.
immunoglobulins (Igs) (IM-myoo-noh-GLOB-yoo-lin) One of the class of proteins comprising the antibodies.
*heavy chains
*light chains
monoclonal antibodies (MON-oh-KLONE-ul) A defensive protein produced by cells descended from a single cell; an antibody that is secreted by a clone of cells and, consequently, is specific for a single antigenic determinant.
*neutralization
*opsonization
*agglutination
*complement fixation
*membrane attack complex (MAC)
*immune adherence
*active immunity
*immunization
*vaccination
*passive immunity
*ABO blood groups
*Rh factor
*anaphylactic shock
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) The name of the late stages of HIV infection; efined by a specified reduction of T cells and the appearance of characteristic econdary infections.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) The infectious agent that causes AIDS; HIV is an RNA retrovirus.
 
 

    Regulation of Body Temperature

         Four physical processes account for heat gain or loss
         Ectotherms derive body heat mainly from their surroundings; endotherms
         derive it mainly from metabolism
         Thermoregulation involves physiological and behavioral adjustments
         Most animals are ectothermic, but endothermy is widespread
         Torpor conserves energy during environmental extremes

    Water Balance and Waste Disposal

         Water balance and waste disposal depend on transport epithelia
         An animal's nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and
         habitat
         Cells require a balance between osmotic gain and loss of water
         Osmoregulators expend energy to control their internal osmolarity;
         osmoconformers are isoosmotic with their surroundings

    Excretory Systems

         Most excretory systems produce urine by refining a filtrate derived from
         body fluids: an overview
         Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme
         Nephrons and associated blood vessels are the functional units of the
         mammalian kidney
         From blood filtrate to urine: a closer look
         The mammalian kidney's ability to conserve water is a key terrestrial
         adaptation
         Nervous system and hormonal feedback circuits regulate kidney functions
         Diverse adaptations of the vertebrate kidney have evolved in different habitats
         Interacting regulatory systems maintain homeostasis
 

Chapter 44
Thermoregulation How animals maintain internal temperature within a tolerable range
Osmoregulation How animals regulate solute balance and the gain and loss of water
Excretion  How animals get rid of the nitrogen-containing waste products of metabolism such as urea
Thermoregulation The maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently
*conduction The indirect transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of the environment and those of the body surface.
*convection The transfer of heat by the movement of air of liquid past the surface of a body.
Radiation The emission of electromagnetic waves produced by all objects warmer than absolute zero, including an animal’s body and the sun.
Evaporation The loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Ectotherm Animals that warm their bodies mainly by absorbing heat from its surroundings.
Endotherm Animals that derive most or all of its heat from its own metabolism.
Vasodilation Increases blood flow by increasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
Vasoconstriction Decreases blood flow by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels
*counter-current heat exchanger `Type of adaptation in ectothermic animals that alter heat exchange because of a special arrangement of arteries and veins
nonshivering thermogenesis The hormonal triggering of heat production
*brown fat Tissue found in the neck and between the shoulders of some mammals that is specialized for rapid heat production.
acclimatization (uh-KLY-mih-ty-ZAY-shun) Physiological adjustment to a change in an environmental factor.
 stress-induced proteins Molecules that help maintain the integrity of other proteins that would be denatured by sever heat
heat-shock proteins A stress-induced protein
torpor An alternative physiological state in which metabolism decreases and the heart and respiratory system slow down.
Hibernation A long-term torpor during which the body temperature is lowered as an adaptation to winter  cold and food scarcity
Estivation Summer torpor;  Characterized bySlow metabolism and inactivity
transport epithelium  A layer or layers of specialized epithelial cells that regulate solute movements.
Osmolarity Total solute concentration expressed as molarity, or moles of solute per liter of solution.
osmoconformer An animal that does not actively adjust its internal osmolarity because it is isotonic with its environment.
osmoregulator An animal whose body  fluids have a different osmolarity than the environment, and that must either discharge excess water if it lives in a hypotonic environment or take in water if it inhabits a hypertonic environment.
*stenohaline
*euryhaline
*anhydrobiosis
*filtration
*reabsorption
secretion (1) The discharge of molecules synthesized by the cell. (2) In the vertebrate kidney, the discharge of wastes from the blood into the filtrate from the nephron  tubules.
protonephridium  (PRO-toh-nef-RID-ee-um) An excretory system, such as the flame-cell system of flatworms, consisting of a network of closed tubules having  external openings called nephridiopores and lacking internal openings.
metanephridium (MET-uh-neh-FRID-ee-um) (plural, metanephridia) In annelid worms, a type of excretory tubule with internal openings called nephrostomes that  collect body fluids and external openings called nephridiopores.
malpighan tubules (mal-PIG-ee-un) A unique excretory organ of insects that empties into the digestive tract, removes nitrogenous wastes from the blood, and functions in osmoregulation.
*renal artery
*renal vein
ureter  A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
*urinary bladder
urethra A tube that releases urine from the body near the vagina in females or through the penis in males; also serves in males as the exit tube for the reproductive system.
*renal medulla
*renal cortex
nephron (NEF-ron) The tubular excretory unit of the vertebrate kidney.
glomerulus (glum-AIR-yoo-lus) A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
Bowman's capsule (BOH-munz) A cup-shaped receptacle in the vertebrate kidney that is the initial, expanded segment of the nephron where filtrate enters from the blood.
*podocytes
*proximal tubule
loop of Henle The long hairpin turn, with a descending and ascending limb, of the renal tubule in the vertebrate kidney; functions in water and salt reabsorption.
*distal tubule
collecting duct The location in the kidney where filtrate from renal tubules is collected; the filtrate is now called urine.
*cortical nephrons
juxtamedullary nephrons
*afferent arteriole
*effernet arteriole
*peritubular capillaries
*vasa recta
secretion (1) The discharge of molecules synthesized by the cell. (2) In the vertebrate kidney, the discharge of wastes from the blood into the filtrate from the nephron tubules.
*reabsorption
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) A hormone important in osmoregulation.
juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) Specialized tissue located near the afferent arteriole that supplies blood to the kidney glomerulus; the JGA raises blood pressure by producing renin, which activates angiotensin.
*angiotensin II
aldosterone (al-DAH-stair-own) An adrenal hormone that acts on the distal tubules of the kidney to stimulate the reabsorption of sodium (Na+) and the passive flow of water from the filtrate.
*renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
*atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)
 
 

    An Introduction to Regulatory Systems

         The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally, chemically,
         and functionally related
         Invertebrate regulatory systems clearly illustrate endocrine and nervous
         system interactions

    Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action

         A variety of local regulators affect neighboring target cells
         Chemical signals bind to specific receptor proteins within target cells or on
         their surface
         Most chemical signals bind to plasma-membrane proteins, initiating
         signal-transduction pathways
         Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and some local regulators enter target
         cells and bind with intracellular receptors

    The Vertebrate Endocrine System

         The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate
         endocrine system
         The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms
         Thyroid hormones function in development, bioenergetics, and homeostasis
         Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin balance blood calcium
         Endocrine tissues of the pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon,
         antagonistic hormones that regulate blood glucose
         The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex help the body manage stress
         Gonadal steroids regulate growth, development, reproductive cycles, and
         sexual behavior
 

Chapter 45
hormone One of many types of circulating chemical signals in all multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized
cells, travel in body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by interacting with target cells.
*target cells
endocrine systemThe internal system of chemical communication involving hormones, the ductless glands that secrete hormones, and the molecular receptors on or in target cells that respond to hormones; functions in concert with the nervous system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis.
endocrine glands  (EN-doh-krin) A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.
neurosecretory cells  Hypothalamus cells that receive signals from other nerve cells, but instead of signaling to an adjacent nerve cell or muscle, they release hormones into the bloodstream.
ecdysone (EK-deh-sone) A steroid hormone that triggers molting in arthropods.
*brain hormone (BH)
juvenile hormone (JH) (JH) A hormone in arthropods, secreted by the corpora allata glands, that promotes the retention of larval characteristics.
*nitric oxide (NO)
growth factors A protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells.
prostaglandins (PGs)  (PROS-tuh-GLAN-din) One of a group of modified fatty acids secreted by virtually all tissues and performing a wide variety of functions as messengers.
signal-tranduction pathways A mechanism linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a cellular response.
tropic hormones  A hormone that has another endocrine gland as a target.
hypothalamus  (HY-poh-THAL-uh-mus) The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.
pituitary gland (pih-TOO-ih-tair-ee) An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.
*anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
releasing hormones A hormone produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus of the vertebrate brain that stimulates or inhibits the secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary.
*inhibiting hormones
*posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
*growth (GH)
*insulin like growth factors (IGFs)
*prolactin (PRL)
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)  A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the production of eggs by the ovaries and sperm by the testes.
luteinizing hormone (LH) (LOO-tee-in-EYE-zing) A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males.
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (TSH) A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that regulates the release of thyroid hormones.
*adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
*melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
endorphins (en-DOR-fin) A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception.
pineal gland (PIN-ee-ul) A small endocrine gland on the dorsal surface of the vertebrate forebrain; secretes the hormone melatonin, which regulates body functions related to seasonal day length.
*melatonin
thyroid gland An endocrine gland that secretes iodine-containing hormones (T3 and T4), which stimulate metabolism and influence development and maturation in vertebrates, and cacitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels in mammals.
*tri-iodothyronine (T3)
*thyroxine (T4)
calcitonin (kal-sih-TOH-nin) A mammalian thyroid hormone that lowers blood calcium levels.
parathyroid glands Four endocrine glands, embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland, that secrete parathyroid hormone and raise blood calcium levels.
*parathyroid hormone (PTH)
*pancreas
*islets of Langerhans
*alpha cells
glucagon A peptide hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.
*beta cells
insulin (IN-sul-in) A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver; also stimulates protein and fat synthesis; secreted by endocrine cells of the pancreas called islets of Langerhans.
*Type I diabetes mellitus
*Type II diabetes mellitus
adrenal glands (uh-DREE-nul) An endocrine gland located adjacent to the kidney in mammals; composed of two glandular portions: an outer cortex, which responds to endocrine signals in reacting to stress and effecting salt and water balance, and a central medulla, which responds to nervous inputs resulting from stress.
*adrenal cortex
*adrenal medulla
epinephrine A hormone produced as a response to stress; also called adrenaline.
*norepinephrine
*catecholamines
glucocorticoids A corticosteroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that influences glucose metabolism and immune function.
mineralocorticoids A corticosteroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulates salt and water homeostasis.
androgens (AN-droh-jens) The principal male steroid hormones, such as testosterone, which stimulate the development and maintenance of the male reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.
testosterone The most abundant androgen hormone in the male body.
estrogens (ES-troh-jens) The primary female steroid sex hormones, which are produced in the ovary by the developing follicle during the first half of the cycle and in smaller quantities by the corpus luteum during the second half. Estrogens stimulate the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.
*progestins
 
 

    Overview of Animal Reproduction

         Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
         Diverse mechanisms of asexual reproduction enable animals to produce
         identical offspring rapidly
         Reproductive cycles and patterns vary extensively among animals

    Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction

         Internal and external fertilization both depend on mechanisms ensuring that
         mature sperm encounter fertile eggs of the same species
         Species with internal fertilization usually produce fewer zygotes but provide
         more parental protection than species with external fertilization
         Complex reproductive systems have evolved in many animal phyla

    Mammalian Reproduction

         Human reproduction involves intricate anatomy and complex behavior
         Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve meiosis but differ in three
         significant ways
         A complex interplay of hormones regulates reproduction
         Embryonic and fetal development occur during pregnancy in humans and
         other eutherian (placental) mammals
         Modern technology offers solutions for some reproductive problems
 

Chapter 46
asexual reproduction A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.
sexual reproduction A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.
gametes (GAM-eet) A haploid egg or sperm cell; gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
zygotes The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception; a fertilized egg.
ovum (PAR-then-oh-JEN-eh-sis) A type of reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs.
*spermatozoom
*fission
budding An asexual means of propagation in which outgrowths from the parent form and pinch off to live independently or else remain attached to eventually form extensive colonies.
*gemmules
*fragmentation
*regeneration
parthenogenesis (PAR-then-oh-JEN-eh-sis) A type of reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs.
*sequential hermaphoditism
*protogynous
*protandrous
fertilization The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
*external fertilization
*internal fertilization
pheromones  (FAIR-uh-mone) A small, volatile chemical signal that functions in communication between animals and acts much like a hormone in influencing physiology and behavior.
gonads (GOH-nadz) The male and female sex organs; the gamete-producing organs in most animals.
*spermatheca
cloaca (kloh-AY-kuh) A common opening for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts in all vertebrates except most mammals.
testes (plural, testes) The male reproductive organ, or gonad, in which sperm and reproductive hormones are produced.
seminiferous tubules (SEM-in-IF-er-us) Highly coiled tubes in the testes in which sperm are produced.
*Leydig cells
*scrotum
epididymis (EP-ih-DID-eh-mis) A long coiled tube into which sperm pass from the testis and are stored until mature and ejaculated.
*ejaculation
vas deferens
ejaculatory duct In the male, a duct from each testis that join to form the urethra.
urethra  A tube that releases urine from the body near the vagina in females or through the penis in males; also serves in males as the exit tube for the reproductive system.
semen (SEE-men) The fluid that is ejaculated by the male during orgasm; contains sperm and secretions from several glands of the male reproductive tract.
seminal vesicles  (SEM-ih-nul VES-ih-cul) A gland in males that secretes a fluid (a component of semen) that lubricates and nourishes sperm.
prostate gland  A gland in human males that secretes an acid-neutralizing component of semen.
bulbourethral glands (BUL-bo-you-REE-thral) One of a pair of glands near the base of the penis in the human male that secrete fluid that lubricates and neutralizes acids in the urethra during sexual arousal.
*penis
*baculum
*glans penis
*prepuce
follicle (FOL-eh-kul) A microscopic structure in the ovary that contains the developing ovum and secretes estrogens.
ovulation The release of an egg from ovaries. In humans, an ovarian follicle releases an egg during each menstrual cycle.
corpus luteum (KOR-pus LOO-tee-um) A secreting tissue in the ovary that forms from the collapsed follicle after ovulation and produces progesterone.
oviduct (OH-veh-dukt) A tube passing from the ovary to the vagina in invertebrates or to the uterus in vertebrates.
uterus A female reproductive organ where eggs are fertilized and/or development of the young occurs.
endometrium (EN-doh-MEE-tree-um) The inner lining of the uterus, which is richly supplied with blood vessels.
*cervix
vagina Part of the female reproductive system between the uterus and the outside opening; the birth canal in mammals; also accommodates the male's penis and receives sperm during copulation.
*hymen
*vestibule
*labia minora
*labia majora
*clitoris
*Bartholin's gland
*mammary glands
*vasocongestion
*myotonia
*coitus
orgasm Rhythmic, involuntary contractions of certain reproductive structures in both sexes during the human sexual response cycle.
spermatogenesis The continuous and prolific production of mature sperm cells in the testis.
acrosome  (AK-ruh-some) An organelle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg.
oogenesis (OO-oh-JEN-eh-sis) The process in the ovary that results in the production of female gametes.
menstrual cycles (MEN-stroo-ul) A type of reproductive cycle in higher female primates, in which the nonpregnant endometrium is shed as a bloody discharge through the cervix into the vagina.
estrous cycles (ES-trus) A type of reproductive cycle in all female mammals except higher primates, in which the nonpregnant endometrium is reabsorbed rather than shed, and sexual response occurs only during midcycle at estrus.
*menstruation
*estrus
*menstrual flow phase
*proliferative phase
*secretory phase
ovarian cycle (oh-VAIR-ee-un) The cyclic recurrence of the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase in the mammalian ovary, regulated by hormones.
follicular phase
*ovulation
*luteal phase
*menopause
*pregnancy
*gestation
embryos (EM-bree-oh) A developing stage of multicellular organisms; in humans, the stage in the development of offspring from the first division of the zygote until body structures begin to appear; about the ninth week of gestation.
*conception
*trimesters
cleavageThe process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cells.
blastocyst An embryonic stage in mammals; a hollow ball of cells produced one week after fertilization in humans.
placenta (pluh-SEN-tuh) A structure in the pregnant uterus for nourishing a viviparous fetus with the mother's blood supply; formed from the uterine lining and embryonic membranes.
organogenesis (or-GAN-oh-JEN-eh-sis) An early period of rapid embryonic development in which the organs take form from the primary germ layers.
*fetus
*human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
*parturition
*labor
*lactation
contraception The prevention of pregnancy.
*rhythm method
*natural family planning
*barrier methods
*condom
*tubal ligation
*vasectomy
*in vitro fertilization
 
 

    An Introduction to Regulatory Systems

         The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally, chemically,
         and functionally related
         Invertebrate regulatory systems clearly illustrate endocrine and nervous
         system interactions

    Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action

         A variety of local regulators affect neighboring target cells
         Chemical signals bind to specific receptor proteins within target cells or on
         their surface
         Most chemical signals bind to plasma-membrane proteins, initiating
         signal-transduction pathways
         Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and some local regulators enter target
         cells and bind with intracellular receptors

    The Vertebrate Endocrine System

         The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate
         endocrine system
         The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms
         Thyroid hormones function in development, bioenergetics, and homeostasis
         Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin balance blood calcium
         Endocrine tissues of the pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon,
         antagonistic hormones that regulate blood glucose
         The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex help the body manage stress
         Gonadal steroids regulate growth, development, reproductive cycles, and
         sexual behavior
 

Chapter 47
*preformation
epigenesis (EP-eh-JEN-eh-sis) The progressive development of form in an embryo.
*acrosomal reaction
*fast block to polyspermy
*cortical reaction
*cortical granules
*fertilization membrane
*slow back to polyspermy
*zona pellucida
cleavageThe process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth  during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cells.
*blastomeres
*yolk
*vegetal pole
*animal pole
*gray crescent
*morula
blastocoel (BLAS-toh-seel) The fluid-filled cavity that forms in the center of the blastula embryo.
blastula (BLAS-tyoo-la) The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development.
meroblastic cleavage (MARE-oh-BLAS-tik) A type of cleavage in which there is incomplete division of yolk-rich egg, characteristic of avian development.
holoblastic cleavage (HOH-loh-BLAS-tik) A type of cleavage in which there is complete division of the egg, as in eggs having little yolk (sea urchin) or a moderate amount of yolk (frog).
gastrulation (GAS-truh-LAY-shun) The formation of a gastrula from a blastula.
gastrula (GAS-troo-la) The two-layered, cup-shaped embryonic stage.
ectoderm (EK-tuh-durm) The outermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; gives rise to the outer covering and, in some phyla, the nervous system, inner ear, and lens of the eye.
endoderm  (EN-doh-durm) The innermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; lines the archenteron and gives rise to the liver, pancreas, lungs, and the lining of the digestive tract.
mesoderm (MEZ-oh-durm) The middle primary germ layer of an early embryo that develops into the notochord, the lining of the coelom, muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys, and most of the circulatory system.
*invagination
archenteron (ark-EN-ter-on) The endoderm-lined cavity, formed during the gastrulation process, that develops into the digestive tract of an animal.
blastopore (BLAS-toh-por) The opening of the archenteron in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes.
*dorsal lip
*involution
*yolk plug
organogenesis (or-GAN-oh-JEN-eh-sis) An early period of rapid embryonic development in which the organs take form from the primary germ layers.
notochord (NO-toh-kord) A longitudinal, flexible rod formed from dorsal mesoderm and located between the gut and the nerve cord in all chordate embryos.
*neural tube
*somites
amniotes A vertebrate possessing an amnion surrounding the embryo; reptiles, birds, and mammals are amniotes.
*blastodisc
*primitive streak
extraembryonic membranes  (EKS-truh-EM-bree-AHN-ik) Four membranes (yolk sac, amnion, chorion, allantois) that support the developing embryo in reptiles, birds, and mammals.
yolk sac One of four extraembryonic membranes that supports embryonic development; the first site of blood cells and circulatory system function.
*amnionchorion
allantois (AL-an-TOH-iss) One of four extraembryonic membranes; serves as a repository for the embryo's nitrogenous waste.
blastocyst An embryonic stage in mammals; a hollow ball of cells produced one week after fertilization in humans.
inner cell mass A cluster of cells in a mammalian blastocyst that protrudes into one end of the cavity and subsequently develops into the embryo proper and some of the extraembryonic membranes.
trophoblast The outer epithelium of the blastocyst, which forms the fetal part of the placenta.
*convergent extension
*cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
*cadherins
*fate maps
pattern formation The ordering of cells into specific three-dimensional structures, an essential part of shaping an organism and its individual parts during development.
positional information  Signals, to which genes regulating development  respond, indicating a cell's location relative to other cells in an embryonic structure.
*apical ectodermal ridge (AER)
*zone of polarizing activity (ZPA)
 
 

    An Overview of Nervous Systems

         Nervous systems perform the three overlapping functions of sensory input,
         integration, and motor output
         The nervous system is composed of neurons and supporting cells

    The Nature of Neural Signals

         Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between a
         cell's contents and the extracellular fluid
         An action potential is an all-or-none change in the membrane potential
         Action potentials "travel" along an axon because they are self-propagating
         Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses
         Neural integration occurs at the cellular level
         The same neurotransmitter can produce different effects on different types of
         cells

    Organization of Nervous Systems

         Nervous system organization tends to correlate with body symmetry
         Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized and cephalized
         The vertebrate PNS has several components differing in organization and
         function

    Structure and Function of the Vertebrate Brain

         The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior bulges of the spinal cord
         The brainstem conducts data and controls automatic activities essential for
         survival
         The cerebellum controls movement and balance
         The thalamus and hypothalamus are prominent integrating centers of the
         diencephalon
         The cerebrum contains the most sophisticated integrating centers
         The human brain is a major research frontier
 

Chapter 48
central nervous system (CNS) In vertebrate animals, the brain and spinal cord. centromere (SEN-troh-mere) The centralized region joining two sister chromatids.
effector cells A muscle cell or gland cell that performs the body's responses to stimuli; responds to signals from the brain or other processing center of the nervous system.
nerves A ropelike bundle of neuron fibers (axons and dendrites) tightly wrapped in connective tissue.
peripheral nervous system (PNS) The sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system.
neuron (NOOR-on) A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.
*cell body
dendrites (DEN-dryt) One of usually numerous, short, highly branched processes of a neuron that conveys nerve impulses toward the cell body.
myelin sheath (MY-eh-lin) In a neuron, an insulating coat of cell membrane from Schwann cells that is interrupted by nodes of Ranvier where saltatory conduction occurs.
Schwann cells A chain of supporting cells enclosing the axons of many neurons and forming an insulating layer called the myelin sheath.
*oligodendrocytes
synaptic terminals A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
synapse (SIN-aps) The locus where one neuron communicates with another neuron in a neural pathway; a narrow gap between a synaptic terminal of an axon and a signal-receiving portion (dendrite or cell body) of another neuron or effector cell. Neurotransmitter molecules released by synaptic terminals diffuse across the synapse, relaying messages to the dendrite or effector.
sensory neurons A nerve cell that receives information from the internal and external environments and transmits the signals to the central nervous system.
interneurons  (IN-tur-NOOR-ahn) An association neuron; a nerve cell within the central nervous system that forms synapses with sensory and motor neurons and integrates sensory input and motor output.
motor neurons A nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.
reflex An automatic reaction to a stimulus, mediated by the spinal cord or lower brain.
ganglion  (GANG-lee-un) (plural, ganglia) A cluster (functional group) of nerve cell bodies in a centralized nervous system.
nuclei (1) An atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons. (2) The chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell. (3) A cluster of neurons.
*supporting cells (glia)
blood-brain barrier A specialized capillary arrangement in the brain that restricts the passage of most substances into the brain, thereby preventing dramatic fluctuations in the brain's environment.
membrane potential The charge difference between the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid in all cells, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances.
*excitable cells
resting potential The membrane potential characteristic of a nonconducting, excitable cell, with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.
gated ion channels A specific ion channel that opens and closes to allow the cell to alter its membrane potential.
hyperpolarization  An electrical state whereby the inside of the cell is made more negative relative to the outside than at the resting membrane potential. A neuron membrane is hyperpolarized if a stimulus increases its voltage from the resting potential of -70 mV, reducing the chance that the neuron will transmit a nerve impulse.
depolarization An electrical state in an excitable cell whereby the inside of the cell is made less negative relative to the outside than at the resting membrane potential. A neuron membrane is depolarized if a stimulus decreases its voltage from the resting potential of -70 mV in the direction of zero voltage.
graded potentials A local voltage change in aneuron membrane induced bystimulation of a neuron, withstrength proportional to the strength of the stimulus and lasting about a millisecond.
threshold potential  The potential an excitable cell membrane must reach for an action potential to be initiated.
action potential A rapid change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered, selective opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and potassium ion channels.
voltage-gated ion channels Ion channel in a membrane that opens and closes in response to changes in membrane potential (voltage); the sodium and potassium channels of neurons are examples.
refractory period (ree-FRAK-tor-ee) The short time immediately after an action potential in which the neuron cannot respond to another stimulus, owing to an increase in potassium permeability.
saltatory conduction (SAHL-tuh-TOR-ee) Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
*presynaptic cell
*postsynaptic cell
synaptic cleft A narrow gap separating the synaptic knob of a transmitting neuron from a  receiving neutron to an  effector.
*synaptic vesicles
neurotransmitter A chemical messenger released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to and stimulates the postsynaptic cell.
*presynaptic membrane
postsynaptic membrane (post-sin-AP-tik) The surface of the cell on the opposite side of the synapse from the synaptic terminal of the stimulating neuron that contains receptor proteins and degradative enzymes for the neurotransmitter.
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)  (POST-sin-AP-tik) Anelectrical change (depolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more likely for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)  (POST-sin-AP-tik) An electrical charge (hyperpolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more difficult for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.
summation A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell in a chemical synapse is determined by the total activity of all excitatory and inhibitory presynaptic impulses acting on it at any one time.
acetyl choline One of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic
 membrane to specific ions, either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the membrane.
*biogenic amines
epinephrine A hormone produced as a response to stress; also called adrenaline.
*norepinephrine
*dopamine
*serotonin
*gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
*glycine
*glutamate
*aspartate
*neuropeptides
*substance P
endorphins (en-DOR-fin) A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception.
*nerve net
*cephalization
*nerve cord
*white matter
*gray matter
*central canal
*ventricles
*cerebrospinal fluid
*meninges
*cranial nerves
*spinal nerves
*sensory division
*motor division
somatic nervous system The branch of the motor division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system composed of motor neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli.
autonomic nervous system (AWT-uh-NAHM-ik) A subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that regulates the internal environment; consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
parasympathetic division One of two divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally enhances body activities that gain and conserve energy, such as digestion and reduced heart rate.
sympathetic division One of two divisions of the autonomic nervous system of vertebrates; generally increases energy expenditure and prepares the body for action.
*forebrain
*midbrain
*hindbrain
*telencephalon
*diencephalon
*mesencephalon
*metencephalon
*myelencephalon
brainstem The hindbrain and midbrain of the vertebrate central nervous system. In humans, it forms a cap on the anterior end of the spinal cord, extending to about the middle of the brain.
medulla oblongata (meh-DOO-luh OBB-long-GAH-tuh) The lowest part of the vertebrate brain; a swelling of the hindbrain dorsal to the anterior spinal cord that controls autonomic, homeostatic functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, digestion, and vomiting.
*pons
*inferior colliculi
*superior colliculi
*epithalamus
*choroid plexus
thalamus (THAL-uh-mus) One of two integrating centers of the vertebrate forebrain. Neurons with cell bodies in the thalamus relay neural input to specific areas in the cerebral cortex and regulate what information goes to the cerebral cortex.
hypothalamus (HY-poh-THAL-uh-mus) The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.
*puprschiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
*cerebral hemispheres
*basal nuclei
cerebral cortex (seh-REE-brul) The surface of the cerebrum; the largest and most complex part of the mammalian brain, containing sensory and motor nerve cell bodies of the cerebrum; the part of the vertebrate brain most changed through evolution.
*corpus callosum
*electroencephalogram (EEG)
*reticular formation
limbic system (LIM-bik) A group of nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) in the lower part of the mammalian forebrain that interact with the cerebral cortex in determining emotions; includes the hippocampus and the amygdala.
*amygdala
*short-term memory
*long-term memory
*hippocampus
long-term depression (LTD)
long-term potentiation (LTP)
*consciousness
 
 

    Introduction to Sensory Reception

         Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the
         nervous system
         Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of energy they transduce

    Photoreceptors

         A broad array of photoreceptors has evolved among invertebrates
         Vertebrates have single-lens eyes
         The light-absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates via signal transduction
         The retina assists the cerebral cortex in processing visual information

    Hearing and Equilibrium

         The mammalian hearing organ is within the inner ear
         The inner ear also contains the organs of equilibrium
         A lateral line system and inner ear detect pressure waves in most fishes
         and acquatic amphibians
         Many invertebrates have gravity sensors and are sound-sensitive

    Chemoreception-Taste and Smell

         Perceptions of taste and smell are usually interrelated

    Movement and Locomotion

         Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity
         Skeletons support and protect the animal body and are essential to
         movement
         Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting
         Interactions between myosin and actin underlie muscle contractions
         Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction
         Diverse body movements require variation in muscle activity
 

Chapter  49
sensations An impulse sent to the brain from activated receptors and sensory neurons.
perception  The interpretation of sensations by the brain.
*sensory reception
sensory receptors  A specialized structure that responds to specific stimuli from an animal's external or internal environment; transmits the information of an  environmental stimulus to the animal's nervous system by converting stimulus energy to the electrochemical energy of action potentials.
*exteroreceptors
*sensory tranduction
receptor potential An initial response of a receptor cell to a stimulus, consisting of a change in voltage across the receptor membrane proportional to the stimulus  strength. The intensity of the receptor potential determines the frequency of action potentials traveling to the nervous system.
*amplification
*transmission
*integration
*sensory adaption
mechanoreceptors  A sensory receptor that detects physical deformations in the body's environment associated with pressure, touch, stretch, motion, and sound.
*muscle spindle
*hair cell
*pain receptors
*nociceptors
*thermoreceptors
chemoreceptors A receptor that transmits information about the total solute concentration in a solution or about individual kinds of molecules.
*gustatory receptors
*olfactory receptors
*electromagnetic receptors
*photoreceptors
*eye cup
compound eye  A type of multifaceted eye in insects and crustaceans consisting of up to several thousand light-detecting, focusing ommatidia; especially good at  detecting movement.
*ommatidia
*single-lens eyes
*choroid
*conjuctiva
*cornea
pupil
retina (REH-tin-uh) The innermost layer of the vertebrate eye, containing photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) and neurons; transmits images formed by the lens to  the brain via the optic nerve.
*lens
*ciliary body
*aqueous humor
vitreous humor
accommodation The automatic adjustment of an eye to focus on near objects.
rod cells One of two kinds of photoreceptors in the vertebrate retina; sensitive to black and white and enables night vision.
cone cells One of two types of photoreceptors in the vertebrate eye; detects color during the day.
*fovea
retinal The light-absorbing pigment in rods and cones of the vertebrate eye.
*opsin
rhodopsin  A visual pigment consisting of retinal and opsin. When rhodopsin absorbs light, the retinal changes shape and dissociates from the opsin, after which it is converted back to its original form.
*photopsins
*bipolar cells
ganglion cells (GANG-lee-un) (plural, ganglia) A cluster (functional group) of nerve cell bodies in a centralized nervous system.
*horizonal cells
*amacrine cells
*lateral inhibiton
*optic chiasm
*lateral geniculate nuclei
*primary visual cortex
*outer ear
*tympanic membrane
*middle ear
*malleus
*incus
*stapes
*oval window
*Eustachian tube
*inner ear
cochlea (KOH-klee-uh) The complex, coiled organ of hearing that contains the organ of Corti.
organ of Corti The actual hearing organ of the vertebrate ear, located in the floor of the cochlear canal in the inner ear; contains the receptor cells (hair cells) of the ear.
*round window
*pitch
*utricle saccule semicircular canals
lateral line system A mechanoreceptor system consisting of a series of pores and receptor units (neuromasts) along the sides of the body of fishes and aquatic  amphibians; detects water movements made by an animal itself and by other moving objects.
*neuromasts
statocysts (STAT-eh-SIST) A type of mechanoreceptor that functions in equilibrium in invertebrates through the use of statoliths, which stimulate hair cells in relation to gravity.
*statoliths
*taste buds
hydrostatic skeleton (HY-droh-STAT-ik) A skeletal system composed of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment; the main skeleton of most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids.
peristalsis (PAIR-is-TAL-sis) Rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscle that push food along the digestive tract.
exoskeleton (EN-doh-SKEL-eh-ton) A hard skeleton buried within the soft tissues of an animal, such as the spicules of sponges, the plates of echinoderms, and the bony skeletons of vertebrates.
cuticle (KYOO-teh-kul) (1) A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation to prevent desiccation in terrestrial plants. (2) The exoskeleton of an arthropod, consisting of layers of protein and chitin that are variously modified for different functions.
chitin (KY-tin) A structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.
endoskeleton
skeletal muscle Striated muscle generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
*myofilaments
*thin filaments
thick filaments A filament composed of staggered arrays of myosin molecules; a component of myofibrils in muscle fibers.
sarcomere  (SAR-koh-meer) The fundamental, repeating unit of striated muscle, delimited by the Z lines.
*Z lines
*I band
*A band
*H zone
sliding-filament model  The theory explaining how muscle contracts, based on change within a sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization, stating that thin (actin) filaments slide across thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere; the shortening of all sarcomeres in a myofibril shortens the entire myofibril.
*cross-bridge
*phosphagens
*creatine phosphate
*tropomyosin
*troponin complex
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SAR-koh-PLAZ-mik reh-TIK-yoo-lum) A modified form of endoplasmic reticulum in striated muscle cells that stores calcium used to  trigger contraction during stimulation.
*T (transverse) tubules
tetanus (TET-un-us) The maximal, sustained contraction of a skeletal muscle, caused by a very fast frequency of action potentials elicited by continual stimulation.
motor unit A single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls.
*recruitment
*fast muscle fibers
*slow muscle fibers
cardiac muscle (KAR-dee-ak) A type of muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart; its cells are joined by intercalated discs that relay each heartbeat.
*intercalated discs
smooth muscle A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cell.